How are vinyl records made? The process from A to Z

The first stage of the process is mastering. The term “mastering” refers to the final audio processing applied to a recording before being preserved into a medium.

Most (if not all) commercially released music gets mastered before release, whether it’s coming out on CD, digital, or vinyl.

There are several reasons why the mastering process is performed.

Funnily enough, the mastering process originated as a solution to issues with using the vinyl format. Songs that contained a large number of bass frequencies would have wider grooves, which in turn meant the needle was more prone to skipping. Bass-heavy grooves are also wider, making less room for music, bringing the total playtime down. (Izotope – Mastering for vinyl).

The original vinyl mastering engineers had the task of compressing and equalizing the recordings so that the medium itself (vinyl) could handle playback smoothly, whilst still sounding great. (Sage Audio – Vinyl Mastering)

Over time, and with the introduction of new mediums (radio, CD, digital, etc), the purpose of mastering changed. It became not only focused on a technically “correct”, or mechanically functioning sound, but also a key stage in enhancing the quality of the recording and making it have a more competitive sound.

Radio had a huge effect on mastering styles and accelerated its corner of the industry. Comercial records were mastered with enough punch and compression to compete with other music on the radio.

Without going on a massive tangent, mastering is the origins of the “loudness wars”, where everybody is competing to have the loudest master, so it sounds stronger than everyone else’s record!

There are several schools of thought when it comes to the mastering process. Every mastering engineer will have their own opinions on the best way to do it. Here are the most common mastering styles.

• Analog Mastering: Using only analog equipment to modify the sound.
• Digital Mastering: Using only digital equipment to master.
• Hybrid Mastering: A mix of both analog and digital techniques.
• Half-Speed Mastering: A special, and contested, form of vinyl mastering. The mastering process is performed whilst the record is playing at half speed. People argue that this increases the quality, as it gives the processors more time to react, and it creates a higher concentration of high frequencies – which in turn provides more clarity and detail. (This is debatable though).

The development of digital technology has completely changed the mastering, mixing, and recording process, making it cleaner, non-linear, and non-destructive.

In the old days (before digital recording technology), recordings would be made directly to an analog medium, most commonly with some form of a tape machine. This meant the music would be recorded directly to a physical medium. Sound loses its quality if it’s replicated on a purely analog medium.

The best way of thinking about this is – imagine a photograph (A), if you take another picture (B) of the original A photograph, the quality of B will be worse than A. A whole load of noise and distortion is added to the medium. Now imagine taking another picture (C), of the B photo, this will be even worse!

This issue of replication meant mastering was important in preserving the quality of the original format with each replication. This issue drives audiophiles to seek the closest to original recordings as possible.

Audiophiles love it when masters are made from the original tape recordings, as it means the sound is as pure and undistorted as possible.  Although most records these days are mastered from a digital file.

After the recordings have been mastered for vinyl, it’s time to cut a master copy.

The master copy acts as a blueprint for subsequent mass-produced consumer copies. A turntable-like cutting lathe scratches grooves into a lacquer platter. This is usually performed by vinyl mastering engineers in the mastering house, who send it elsewhere for the later stages.

Typically the master copy uses separate disks for each side of the record, rather than cutting them into a double-sided one.

The master copy is often cut multiple times, tested, and refined. The first master cutting rarely becomes the blueprint for consumer pressings. The engineers spend a long time ensuring the grooves are cut perfectly, with an accurate and acceptable sound.

When the engineers are happy, the master copy is sent to the next stage to undergo a few more preparations to become a “stamper”. The stamper is basically a reverse or negative mold of the vinyl grooves (and consists of two separate plates, one for each side of the record).

After the master lacquers are cut and tested they are coated with a strong, thin metal coating.

Typically nickel or copper is used for the sturdy base coat, which is sometimes fortified with precious metals like silver, gold, or platinum.

This process is called Electroplating or Electroforming and is used to increase the master copy’s strength to endure the strain of mass production. Once coated, the disc becomes the “mother”, which is a metallic disc used to create the stampers. The mother is essentially a super hard version of the vinyl record, that is used to make the stamper mold for mass production.

Stampers are made by the “mother”. These are further metal disks with a reverse mold of the master cutting. Rather than having grooves, they have raised ridges.

Record stampers are used later for pressing the grooves into liquid PVC “biscuits”.

Labels are made using printed paper or card.

Labels are first printed into large sheets, then cut into shape. These are saved for later and used during the pressing stage.

Labels aren’t actually glued to the vinyl, but they fuse into its surface with the pressure and heat of the stamping process.

The first batch of test pressings typically uses blank, white labels. These are often highly sought-after collector’s items and can fetch a higher market price than consumer runs.

White labels fetch a high price for several reasons. Primarily, there is an element of exclusivity. White label pressings are often very limited runs, rarely with more than 10 copies being made. At one stage, these may have been owned by people involved with the music, so they have a ‘celebrity’ factor.

Technically, white labels can have higher quality than subsequent copies. Stampers are used for around 500 pressings before being replaced. Later pressings tend to have higher noise, so the earliest ones have a cleaner sound. (More info at Masterdisk)

After the stamper disk is fitted to the pressing machine, mass production can begin.

It starts with a biscuit – not the sweet kind. Small pellets of PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) are heated in a small chamber to create a blank “biscuit”.  The vinyl pellets can be a mix of any color. At this stage, it’s like a hot blob of plastic.

Before pressing, the labels are placed onto the biscuit. This binds the label to the vinyl without the need for glue.

The stamper is heated, and squashes down on the biscuit, stamping the grooves into its surface.

The stamper squeezes it to the correct thickness. Excess PVC is pushed out the sides of the press, which leaves an overhang.

The vinyl is then trimmed, cutting it to a perfect circle, before moving to a cooling rack. The trimmed remains are usually recycled.

The total stamping procedure takes around 30 seconds per record. Most vinyl pressing plants use automated machines, which automatically reload and re-press.

Records typically undergo a few stages of quality control.

The very first master copy will be tested multiple times. Often with multiple iterations being cut until the preferred sound is perfected.

Before mass production, a limited run (5-10) of initial pressings are made. These are generally called White Labels and are privately shared with people involved – typically the artist and record label.

These test pressings are inspected for any mistakes or imperfections which may need addressing before pressing the full run. These are often sent out to collaborators of the band, and sometimes experts in the field or genre.

Once approved by the label and artist, the record pressing plant is given the green light for mass production.

The final stage before distribution is the packaging.

All that needs to be done is seal the record up in protective and decorative sleeves. Most record sleeves are usually printed with some kind of artwork. This is usually either a picture of the band or some other kind of art.  Some record covers are works of art in themself. Others use plain designs.

Some artists creatively experiment with the vinyl sleeve, adding more elements than a simple piece of printed card. For example, “Sticky Fingers” by The Rolling stones included a real zipper attached to the cover. “Led Zeppelin III” included a rotating card that showed different sections of the artwork as you spun it. Led Zeppelin’s “Physical Graffiti” included multiple slides that showed different elements of the artwork.

Usually, there are two sleeve elements: the inner sleeve, and the decorated card outer sleeve.

Inner sleeves come in a few styles. Paper sleeves are the cheapest, although can leave micro-scratches, and tend to leave tiny paper fibers on the vinyl. You’ll also find thin plastic sleeves. On older vinyl (1960s and 1970s) it’s common to use wax-lined inner sleeves, often covered in adverts or instructions.

There are a few styles of sleeves, from basic paper envelopes to complex foldouts and double record sleeves. The final result really depends on the artist’s desires and budget.

After the main record product has been produced, it’s time to package it up and ship it out.

Some records are wrapped in a plastic coating for protection before shipping.

Records are now packed into multi-pack boxes, typically containing around 30-50 vinyl records per box. To prevent warping or damage, records are typically stacked vertically, creating even pressure across all records. They’re also shipped in reinforced boxes with protective packaging like bubble wrap.

These multi-packs are then sent to the various retail outlets.